Thesis Structure

Title Page
Title (including subtitle), author, institution, department, date of delivery, research mentor, mentor's institution

Abstract

* A good abstract explains in one line why the paper is important. It then goes on to give a summary of your major results, preferably couched in numbers with error limits. The final sentences explain the major implications of your work. A good abstract is concise, readable, and quantitative.
* Length should be ~ 1-2 paragraphs, approx. 400 words.
* Information in title should not be repeated.
* Be explicit.
* Use numbers where appropriate.
* Answers to these questions should be found in the abstract:
1. What did you do?
2. Why did you do it? What question were you trying to answer?
3. How did you do it? State methods.
4. What did you learn? State major results.
5. Why does it matter? Point out at least one significant implication.

Table of Contents

* list all headings and subheadings with page numbers
* indent subheadings
* it will look something like this:

Page #
List of Figures xxx
List of Tables
Introduction
subheads ...?
Methods
subheads ...?
Results
subheads ...?
Discussion
subheads ...?
Conclusion
Recommendations
Acknowledgments
References
Appendices
List of Figures
List page numbers of all figures.
List of Tables
List page numbers of all tables.

Introduction
You can't write a good introduction until you know what the body of the paper says. Consider writing the introductory section(s) after you have completed the rest of the paper, rather than before.

Be sure to include a hook at the beginning of the introduction. This is a statement of something sufficiently interesting to motivate your reader to read the rest of the paper, it is an important/interesting scientific problem that your paper either solves or addresses. You should draw the reader in and make them want to read the rest of the paper.

The next paragraphs in the introduction should cite previous research in this area. It should cite those who had the idea or ideas first, and should also cite those who have done the most recent and relevant work. You should then go on to explain why more work was necessary (your work, of course.)

What else belongs in the introductory section(s) of your paper?

1. A statement of the goal of the paper: why the study was undertaken, or why the paper was written. Do not repeat the abstract.
2. Sufficient background information to allow the reader to understand the context and significance of the question you are trying to address.
3. Proper acknowledgement of the previous work on which you are building. Sufficient references such that a reader could, by going to the library, achieve a sophisticated understanding of the context and significance of the question.
4. Explain the scope of your work, what will and will not be included.
5. A verbal "road map" or verbal "table of contents" guiding the reader to what lies ahead.
6. Is it obvious where introductory material ("old stuff") ends and your contribution ("new stuff") begins?

Remember that this is not a review paper. We are looking for original work and interpretation/analysis by you. Break up the introduction section into logical segments by using subheads.

Methods
What belongs in the "methods" section of a scientific paper?

1. Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of your results.
2. Information needed by another researcher to replicate your experiment.
3. Description of your materials, procedure, theory.
4. Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and calibration plots.
5. Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity.

The methods section should answering the following questions and caveats:

1. Could one accurately replicate the study (for example, all of the optional and adjustable parameters on any sensors or instruments that were used to acquire the data)?
2. Could another researcher accurately find and reoccupy the sampling stations or track lines?
3. Is there enough information provided about any instruments used so that a functionally equivalent instrument could be used to repeat the experiment?
4. If the data is in the public domain, could another researcher lay his or her hands on the identical data set?
5. Could one replicate any laboratory analyses that were used?
6. Could one replicate any statistical analyses?
7. Could another researcher approximately replicate the key algorithms of any computer software?

Citations in this section should be limited to data sources and references of where to find more complete descriptions of procedures.
Do not include descriptions of results.

Results

* The results are actual statements of observations, including statistics, tables and graphs.
* Indicate information on range of variation.
* Mention negative results as well as positive. Do not interpret results - save that for the discussion.
* Lay out the case as for a jury. Present sufficient details so that others can draw their own inferences and construct their own explanations.
* Use S.I. units (m, s, kg, W, etc.) throughout the thesis.
* Break up your results into logical segments by using subheads

Note: Results vs. Discussion Sections
Quarantine your observations from your interpretations. The writer must make it crystal clear to the reader which statements are observation and which are interpretation. In most circumstances, this is best accomplished by physically separating statements about new observations from statements about the meaning or significance of those observations. Alternatively, this goal can be accomplished by careful use of phrases such as "I infer ..." vast bodies of geological literature became obsolete with the advent of plate tectonics; the papers that survived are those in which observations were presented in stand-alone fashion, unmuddied by whatever ideas the author might have had about the processes that caused the observed phenomena.

How do you do this?

1. Physical separation into different sections or paragraphs.
2. Don't overlay interpretation on top of data in figures.
3. Careful use of phrases such as "We infer that ".
4. Don't worry if "results" seem short.

Why?

1. Easier for your reader to absorb, frequent shifts of mental mode not required.
2. Ensures that your work will endure in spite of shifting paradigms.

Discussion
Start with a few sentences that summarize the most important results. The discussion section should be a brief essay in itself, answering the following questions and caveats:

1. What are the major patterns in the observations? (Refer to spatial and temporal variations.)
2. What are the relationships, trends and generalizations among the results?
3. What are the exceptions to these patterns or generalizations?
4. What are the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these patterns resulting predictions?
5. Is there agreement or disagreement with previous work?
6. Interpret results in terms of background laid out in the introduction - what is the relationship of the present results to the original question?
7. What is the implication of the present results for other unanswered questions in earth sciences?
8. Multiple hypotheses: There are usually several possible explanations for results. Be careful to consider all of these rather than simply pushing your favorite one. If you can eliminate all but one, that is great, but often that is not possible with the data in hand. In that case you should give even treatment to the remaining possibilities, and try to indicate ways in which future work may lead to their discrimination.
9. Avoid bandwagons: A special case of the above. Avoid jumping a currently fashionable point of view unless your results really do strongly support them.
10. What are the things we now know or understand that we didn't know or understand before the present work?
11. Include the evidence or line of reasoning supporting each interpretation.
12. What is the significance of the present results: why should we care?

This section should be rich in references to similar work and background needed to interpret results. However, interpretation/discussion section(s) are often too long and verbose. Is there material that does not contribute to one of the elements listed above? If so, this may be material that you will want to consider deleting or moving. Break up the section into logical segments by using subheads.
Conclusions

* What is the strongest and most important statement that you can make from your observations?
* If you met the reader at a meeting six months from now, what do you want them to remember about your paper?
* Refer back to problem posed, and describe the conclusions that you reached from carrying out this investigation, summarize new observations, new interpretations, and new insights that have resulted from the present work.
* Include the broader implications of your results.
* Do not repeat word for word the abstract, introduction or discussion.

Recommendations

* Remedial action to solve the problem.
* Further research to fill in gaps in our understanding.
* Directions for future investigations on this or related topics.

Acknowledgments
Advisor(s) and anyone who helped you:

1. technically (including materials, supplies)
2. intellectually (assistance, advice)
3. financially (for example, departmental support, travel grants)

References

* cite all ideas, concepts, text, data that are not your own
* if you make a statement, back it up with your own data or a reference
* all references cited in the text must be listed
* cite single-author references by the surname of the author (followed by date of the publication in parenthesis)
o ... according to Hays (1994)
o ... population growth is one of the greatest environmental concerns facing future generations (Hays, 1994).
* cite double-author references by the surnames of both authors (followed by date of the publication in parenthesis)
o e.g. Simpson and Hays (1994)
* cite more than double-author references by the surname of the first author followed by et al. and then the date of the publication
o e.g. Pfirman, Simpson and Hays would be:
o Pfirman et al. (1994)
* do not use footnotes
* list all references cited in the text in alphabetical order using the following format for different types of material:
o Hunt, S. (1966) Carbohydrate and amino acid composition of the egg capsules of the whelk. Nature, 210, 436-437.
o National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1997) Commonly asked questions about ozone. http://www.noaa.gov/public-affairs/grounders/ozo1.html, 9/27/97.
o Pfirman, S.L., M. Stute, H.J. Simpson, and J. Hays (1996) Undergraduate research at Barnard and Columbia, Journal of Research, 11, 213-214.
o Pechenik, J.A. (1987) A short guide to writing about biology. Harper Collins Publishers, New York, 194pp.
o Pitelka, D.R., and F.M. Child (1964) Review of ciliary structure and function. In: Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa, Vol. 3 (S.H. Hutner, editor), Academic Press, New York, 131-198.
o Sambrotto, R. (1997) lecture notes, Environmental Data Analysis, Barnard College, Oct 2, 1997.
o Stute, M., J.F. Clark, P. Schlosser, W.S. Broecker, and G. Bonani (1995) A high altitude continental paleotemperature record derived from noble gases dissolved in groundwater from the San Juan Basin, New Mexico. Quat. Res., 43, 209-220.
o New York Times (1/15/00) PCBs in the Hudson still an issue, A2.
* it is acceptable to put the initials of the individual authors behind their last names, e.g. Pfirman, S.L., Stute, M., Simpson, H.J., and Hays, J (1996) Undergraduate research at ......

Appendices

* Include all your data in the appendix.
* Reference data/materials not easily available (theses are used as a resource by the department and other students).
* Tables (where more than 1-2 pages).
* Calculations (where more than 1-2 pages).
* You may include a key article as appendix.
* If you consulted a large number of references but did not cite all of them, you might want to include a list of additional resource material, etc.
* List of equipment used for an experiment or details of complicated procedures.
* Note: Figures and tables, including captions, should be embedded in the text and not in an appendix, unless they are more than 1-2 pages and are not critical to your argument.

II. Crosscutting Issues
What Are We Looking For?
We are looking for a critical analysis. We want you to answer a scientific question or hypothesis. We would like you to gather evidence -- from various sources -- to allow you to make interpretations and judgments. Your approach/methods should be carefully designed to come to closure. Your results should be clearly defined and discussed in the context of your topic. Relevant literature should be cited. You should place your analysis in a broader context, and highlight the implications (regional, global, etc.) of your work. We are looking for a well-reasoned line of argument, from your initial question, compilation of relevant evidence, setting data in a general/universal context, and finally making a judgment based on your analysis. Your thesis should be clearly written and in the format described below.
Planning Ahead for Your Thesis
If at all possible, start your thesis research during the summer between your junior and senior year - or even earlier - with an internship, etc. ... then work on filling in background material and lab work during the fall so that you're prepared to write and present your research during the spring . The best strategy is to pick a project that you are interested in, but also that a faculty member or other professional is working on. This person will become your research mentor and this gives you someone to talk with and get background material from. If you're unsure about the selection of a project, let us know and we'll try to connect you with someone.

et ideas about what you need to do and if you wait too long to write things up, you'll not have time to finish.

Writing for an Audience
Who is your audience?

1. Researchers working in analogous field areas elsewhere in the world (i.e. other strike-slip faults, other deep sea fans).
2. Researchers working in your field area, but with different techniques.
3. Researchers working on the same interval of geologic time elsewhere in the world.
4. All other researchers using the same technique you have used .
5. If your study encompasses an active process, researchers working on the same process in the ancient record.
6. Conversely, if your study is based on the rock record, people studying modem analogs.
7. People writing a synthesis paper on important new developments in your field.
8. People applying earth science to societal problems (i.e. earthquake hazard reduction, climate warming) who will try to understand your paper.
9. Potential reviewers of your ms. or your thesis committee.

Skimming vs. Reading
Because of the literature explosion, papers more skimmed than read. Skimming involves reading the abstract, and looking at the figures and figure captions. Therefore, you should construct your paper so that it can be understood by skimming, i.e., the conclusions, as written in your abstract, can be understood by study of the figures and captions. The text fills out the details for the more interested reader.

Order of Writing
Your thesis is not written in the same order as it is presented in. The following gives you one idea how to proceed.

1. first organize your paper as a logical argument before you begin writing
2. make your figures to illustrate your argument (think skimming)
3. the main sections are: background to the argument (intro); describing the information to be used in the argument, and making points about them (observations), connecting the points regarding the info (analysis), summing up (conclusions).
4. outline the main elements: sections, and subsections
5. begin writing, choosing options in the following hierarchy - paragraphs, sentences, and words.

Here is another approach.

1. Write up a preliminary version of the background section first. This will serve as the basis for the introduction in your final paper.
2. As you collect data, write up the methods section. It is much easier to do this right after you have collected the data. Be sure to include a description of the research equipment and relevant calibration plots.
3. When you have some data, start making plots and tables of the data. These will help you to visualize the data and to see gaps in your data collection. If time permits, you should go back and fill in the gaps. You are finished when you have a set of plots that show a definite trend (or lack of a trend). Be sure to make adequate statistical tests of your results.
4. Once you have a complete set of plots and statistical tests, arrange the plots and tables in a logical order. Write figure captions for the plots and tables. As much as possible, the captions should stand alone in explaining the plots and tables. Many scientists read only the abstract, figures, figure captions, tables, table captions, and conclusions of a paper. Be sure that your figures, tables and captions are well labeled and well documented.
5. Once your plots and tables are complete, write the results section. Writing this section requires extreme discipline. You must describe your results, but you must NOT interpret them. (If good ideas occur to you at this time, save them at the bottom of the page for the discussion section.) Be factual and orderly in this section, but try not to be too dry.
6. Once you have written the results section, you can move on to the discussion section. This is usually fun to write, because now you can talk about your ideas about the data. If you can come up with a good cartoon/schematic showing your ideas, do so. Many papers are cited in the literature because they have a good cartoon that subsequent authors would like to use or modify.
7. In writing the discussion session, be sure to adequately discuss the work of other authors who collected data on the same or related scientific questions. Be sure to discuss how their work is relevant to your work. If there were flaws in their methodology, this is the place to discuss it.
8. After you have discussed the data, you can write the conclusions section. In this section, you take the ideas that were mentioned in the discussion section and try to come to some closure. If some hypothesis can be ruled out as a result of your work, say so. If more work is needed for a definitive answer, say that.
9. The final section in the paper is a recommendation section. This is really the end of the conclusion section in a scientific paper. Make recommendations for further research or policy actions in this section. If you can make predictions about what will be found if X is true, then do so. You will get credit from later researchers for this.
10. After you have finished the recommendation section, look back at your original introduction. Your introduction should set the stage for the conclusions of the paper by laying out the ideas that you will test in the paper. Now that you know where the paper is leading, you will probably need to rewrite the introduction.
11. You must write your abstract last.



Figures and Tables

* The actual figures and tables should be embedded/inserted in the text, generally on the page following the page where the figure/table is first cited in the text.
* All figures and tables should be numbered and cited consecutively in the text as figure 1, figure 2, table 1, table 2, etc.
* Include a caption for each figure and table, citing how it was constructed (reference citations, data sources, etc.) and highlighting the key findings (think skimming). Include an index figure (map) showing and naming all locations discussed in paper.
* You are encouraged to make your own figures, including cartoons, schematics or sketches that illustrate the processes that you discuss. Examine your figures with these questions in mind:
1. Is the figure self-explanatory?
2. Are your axes labeled and are the units indicated?
3. Show the uncertainty in your data with error bars.
4. If the data are fit by a curve, indicate the goodness of fit.
5. Could chart junk be eliminated?
6. Could non-data ink be eliminated?
7. Could redundant data ink be eliminated?
8. Could data density be increased by eliminating non-data bearing space?
9. Is this a sparse data set that could better be expressed as a table?
10. Does the figure distort the data in any way?
11. Are the data presented in context?
12. Does the figure caption guide the reader's eye to the "take-home lesson" of the figure?
* Figures should be oriented vertically, in portrait mode, wherever possible. If you must orient them horizontally, in landscape mode, orient them so that you can read them from the right, not from the left, where the binding will be.

Tying the Text to the Data
"Show them, don't just tell them…" Ideally, every result claimed in the text should be documented with data, usually data presented in tables or figures. If there are no data provided to support a given statement of result or observation, consider adding more data, or deleting the unsupported "observation."
Examine figure(s) or table(s) pertaining to the result(s).
Assess whether:

1. the data support the textual statement
2. the data contradict the textual statement
3. the data are insufficient to prove or refute the textual statement
4. the data may support the textual statement, but are not presented in such a way that you can be sure you are seeing the same phenomenon in the data that the author claims to have seen.

Giving Credit
How does one fairly and accurately indicate who has made what contributions towards the results and interpretations presented in your paper?: by referencing, authorship, and acknowledgements.
Different types of errors:

1. direct quotes or illustrations without quotation marks, without attribution
2. direct quotes without quotation marks, with attribution
3. concepts/ideas without attribution
4. concepts/ideas with sloppy attribution
5. omitting or fabricating data or results

Check references carefully and reread reference works prior to publication. The first time you read something, you will consciously remember some things, but may subconsciously take in other aspects. It is important to cross check your conscious memory against your citations.
See also:
D. Kennedy, 1985, On Academic Authorship
Sigma Xi, 1984, Honor in Science
Yale University pamphlet on plagiarism

Final Thesis

* Make 3 final copies: 1 to mentor and 2 to department, so that we can have 2 readers.
* Final thesis should be bound.
* Printed cleanly on white paper.
* Double-spaced using 12-point font.
* 1-inch margins.
* Double-sided saves paper.
* Include page numbers.

Resources

* The Barnard Writing Room provides assistance on writing senior theses.
* Look at other theses on file in the Environmental Science department, they will give you an idea of what we are looking for.
* Of course do not hesitate to ask us, or your research advisor for help.
* The Barnard Environmental Science Department has many books on scientific writing, ask the departmental administrator for assistance in locating them.
* Also see additional books listed as Resources.

III. Editing Your Thesis
Even a rough draft should be edited.

Copy Editing

1. Proof read your thesis a few times.
2. Check your spelling. spellcheckers are useful for initial checking, but don't catch homonyms (e.g. hear, here), so you need to do the final check by eye.
3. Make sure that you use complete sentences
4. Check your grammar: punctuation, sentence structure, subject-verb agreement (plural or singular), tense consistency, etc.
5. Give it to others to read and comment.

Content Editing

1. logic
2. repetition, relevance
3. style

Avoiding ambiguity

1. Do not allow run-on sentences to sneak into your writing; try semicolons.
2. Avoid nested clauses/phrases.
3. Avoid clauses or phrases with more than two ideas in them.
4. Do not use double negatives.
5. Do not use dangling participles (i.e. phrases with an "-ing" verb, in sentences where the agent performing the action of the "-ing" verb is not specified: " After standing in boiling water for two hours, examine the flask.").
6. Make sure that the antecedent for every pronoun (it, these, those, that, this, one) is crystal clear. If in doubt, use the noun rather than the pronoun, even if the resulting sentence seems a little bit redundant.
7. Ensure that subject and verb agree in number (singular versus plural).
8. Be especially careful with compound subjects. Be especially careful with subject/verb agreement within clauses.
9. Avoid qualitative adjectives when describing concepts that are quantifiable ("The water is deep." "Plate convergence is fast." "Our algorithm is better.") Instead, quantify. ("Water depths exceed 5km.")
10. Avoid noun strings ("acoustic noise source location technique").
11. Do not use unexplained acronyms. Spell out all acronyms the first time that you use them.

Thesis length
Write for brevity rather than length. The goal is the shortest possible paper that contains all information necessary to describe the work and support the interpretation.
Avoid unnecessary repetition and irrelevant tangents.
Necessary repetition: the main theme should be developed in the introduction as a motivation or working hypothesis. It is then developed in the main body of the paper, and mentioned again in the discussion section (and, of course, in the abstract and conclusions).
Some suggestions on how to shorten your paper:

1. Use tables for repetitive information.
2. Include only sufficient background material to permit the reader to understand your story, not every paper ever written on the subject.
3. Use figure captions effectively.
4. Don't describe the contents of the figures and/or tables in the text item-by-item. Instead, use the text to point out the most significant patterns, items or trends in the figures and tables.
5. Delete "observations" or "results" that are mentioned in the text for which you have not shown data.
6. Delete "conclusions" that are not directly supported by your observations or results.
7. Delete "interpretation" or "discussion" sections that are inconclusive.
8. Delete "interpretation" or "discussion" sections that are only peripherally related to your new results or observations.
9. Scrutinize adjectives! adverbs and prepositional phrases.

Although it varies considerably from project to project, average thesis length is about 40 pages of text plus figures. This total page count includes all your text as well as the list of references, but it does not include any appendices. These generalizations should not be taken too seriously, especially if you are working on a labor-intensive lab project. If you have any questions about whether your project is of sufficient scope, consult one of us early on.


Writing for an International Audience

1. Put as much information as possible into figures and tables. In particular, try to find a way to put your conclusions into a figure, perhaps a flowchart or a cartoon.
2. Don't assume that readers are familiar with the geography or the stratigraphy of your field area.
3. Every single place-name mentioned in the text should be shown on a map.
4. Consider including a location map, either as a separate figure or as an inset to another figure. If your paper involves stratigraphy, consider including a summary stratigraphic column--in effect, a location map in time.
5. Use shorter sentences. Avoid nested clauses or phrases.
6. Avoid idioms. Favor usages that can be looked up in an ordinary dictionary. "Take the beaker out of the oven immediately..." rather than "Take the beaker out of the oven right away..."

Writing a Master's Thesis or Dissertation Proposal Part 3 of 3

Remember that it's often necessary to refine the first proposal, most likely by narrowing the scope of your study. But this is all part of the essential process of formulating a working plan for a dissertation that will yield a successful result. If you think of your proposal in this light, you're more apt to remain patient as you, work your way to the final draft.

A checklist for self-appraisal, from Davis & Parker:

1. Does the proposal have imagination?

2. Is the problem stated clearly?

(a) hypothesis clear? testable?

(b) if no hypothesis, are objectives clearly stated? Can they be accomplished?

(c) problem perhaps too large?

3. Is the methodology feasible?

(a) can data be collected?

(b) how will data be analyzed?

(c) will the analysis allow the acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis?

(d) is the sample population overused?

4. What might the results of the analysis look like? (tables, graphs, etc.)

5. What are the consequences if

(a) the experiment fails;

(b) data cannot be obtained;

(c) analysis is inconclusive;

(d) hypothesis is rejected or accepted?

6. Can major research activities be listed?

7. Can a time estimate be made for each activity?

8. Again, are the dimensions of the project manageable?

Taken from this

Writing a Master's Thesis or Dissertation Proposal Part 2 of 3

Let's say that's what has happened, and you're now in the happy position of writing the first draft of your formal proposal. This is an expansion of the topic analysis and will be your final work plan, so it will probably end up being anywhere from ten to forty pages. Again, here's a generally accepted proposal with an idea of expected page length:
Section of Proposal

Page Length
1. Summary 1-2
2. Hypothesis, problem or question 1-3
3. Importance of topic 1-2
4. Prior research on topic 1-7
5. Research approach or methodology 2-8
6. Limitations and key assumptions 1-2
7. Contributions to knowledge 1-3
(for each potential outcome,if there are more than one)
8. Descriptions of proposed chapters in dissertation 2-3

Note: A master's thesis can often be less detailed and elaborate than the above plan. Also, individual departments usually have their own unique preferences. The above plan is meant only as a general guide. Always check with your own department for specific Guidelines!

(1-4) the first four sections are about the same as those in your topic analysis, only amplified and refined. The prior research section in particular must be more comprehensive, although you may certainly summarize your report of prior research if there is a great deal of it. Your actual dissertation will be the obvious place to go into more detail.

The research approach or methodology section (5) should be explained explicitly. For example, what questions will you include on your questionnaire? If your work includes an experiment, what apparatus will you use, what procedures will you follow, what data do you intend to collect, and what instruments will you use in data collection? List any major questions yet to be decided.

In the limitations section (6) make clear what your study will not attempt to do.

The contributions section (7) will simply be more detailed than in your topic analysis, and your chapter descriptions (8) should be as specific as possible. Just remember this is a proposal, so keep descriptions brief, and try to highlight the structure of each chapter. Most dissertations follow a standard chapter format:

1. Introduction (general problem area, specific problem, importance of topic, research approach, limitations, key assumptions, and contribution to research)

2. Description of what has been done in the past. (a.k.a. literature review; this documents that your own research has not already been covered.)

3. Description of the research methodology. (how your research was conducted).

4. Research results. (What you found out).

5. Analysis of the results (explains the conclusions that can be drawn from data, and implications of a theory).

6. Summary and conclusions (emphasize the results obtained and contribution made. Outline suggestions for further research.)

With this general framework in mind, along with the specific characteristics of your own dissertation, you can define your chapters clearly for your formal proposal.

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Writing a Master's Thesis or Dissertation Proposal Part 1 of 3

The proposal for a thesis or dissertation is essentially an outline of the research - kind of like an architectural blueprint for building a house. The clearer the plan, the more timely and successful the completion of the house. And the clearer the plan, the more likely it is that it will be approved by your advisor or dissertation committee, with a high probability that the final paper will also be accepted. A well - done, acceptable proposal, therefore, is a kind of personal contract between you the candidate, and your committee.

The challenge lies - as usual - in deciding exactly what topic you want to propose! It is true that some fortunate students may be offered a specific topic or problem to pursue by a mentor whose preferences agree with the student's own. But more often, your job is to come up with a specific topic or research question that shows promise for extended study. Do not worry if a topic does not suggest itself to you immediately. Be ready and willing to try out a number of possibilities to see how they develop. How do you "try out" a topic? - by doing a topic analysis.



This is really a simplified proposal form that includes the following parts:

1. Problem, hypothesis, or question

2. Importance of research

3. Significant prior research

4. Possible research approach or methodology

5. Potential outcomes of research and importance of each


Analyzing a potentially useful topic in this step?by?step way forces you to look at it objectively and precisely within two to four pages. Here are some points to watch for:

1. If you are unable to write your topic in either the form of a hypothesis or a clear statement, you need to refine and clarify the topic. It must be stated specifically, not in vague, imprecise terms.

2. You'll need to be able to justify what you're doing and prove that it's worthy of your time and energy. It's always handy if you can quote a major authority who is stating a need for the research. But if you don't have an authority on hand, try to demonstrate that your research is in some way significant to a major activity.

3. Be sure you have a reasonable (if not exhaustive) grasp of what's been done before. This will help support #2.

4. Extremely important part! Exactly how do you plan to approach the research? Try to explain as precisely as possible, and include an alternative methodology. This part may still be in rough form, but it should indicate the likely nature of your approach.

5. This will be important in assessing the worth of your topic. For example, let's say you might propose the use of a questionnaire to collect evidence. You would then need to analyze the results of the questionnaire. Your potential outcomes (speaking generally) might be a positive correlation between two factors, a negative one, none at all, or unsatisfactory responses. Perhaps only one of these outcomes could lead to a dissertation. That result could suggest the need for a different approach to the issue, which in turn could lead you down a more productive path.

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Thesis Writing: How To Write A Masters Thesis

About Thesis Writing and This Guide

The thesis is the single most significant achievement of your graduate degree. It is a formalized expression of the fact that you have made a significant and original contribution to knowledge.

A successful thesis has two main qualities: first, it identifies a good question; and second, it provides a satisfactory answer to that question.

What makes a thesis question a good one? First, it must remain unanswered. Second, its answer must serve as a contribution to knowledge. By convincing the reader that you have chosen a good question and that you have answered it, you have also convinced the reader that you have made a significant and original contribution to knowledge.

This is intended as a guide to successful masters thesis writing. A general outline of the thesis is given first, followed by a few remarks on the outline and a miscellany of tips for keeping your readers happy and engaged.

General Outline of the Thesis

1. Introduction

In the opening paragraphs, your goal is to introduce the reader to the particular question your thesis is seeking to answer. Unlike in the traditional five-paragraph essay, in thesis writing the introduction is not merely a summary of points to be elaborated on in later sections. Rather, your objective here is to inform the reader of what the question is, why it is important, and how your thesis will provide an answer.

2. Background Information

Thesis writing often produces works of highly esoteric content. Depending on the nature of your work, it may be necessary to provide the reader with some measure of background information relevant to the topic. This is particularly useful when your work is interdisciplinary, in which case it is even more likely that the reader will benefit from a section that contextualizes the question and supplies the history and terminology so that the reader will be better able to follow the pages the come. It is often more engaging to use a topic-specific title for a section on background information, e.g. “A General Overview of the Proto-Germanic Vowel System.”

3. Review of the Literature and Research

The next step is to review the current state of research on the topic entertained in your thesis. This differs from a section on background information in that whereas background information remains more general in scope, this section concentrates on those issues and aspects of the field that specifically relate to the question you seek to answer. As such, this section should also incorporate an examination of the varying viewpoints surrounding your question, in order to orient the reader in the discourse of the field. Keep in mind, however, that at this stage of the thesis writing your goal is simply to present these varying viewpoints, not to be critical of them. That comes later.

This section should also be given a topic-specific title, and should be organized by ideas rather than by authors or works. Using subsections is a practical means of distinguishing the different approaches to the problem.

4. Statement of the Question or Problem

Different disciplines use different words to refer to the central focus of the thesis. Whether it is a question you are trying to answer or a problem you are trying to solve, there are three important steps to take in establishing the role of your thesis:

• State the question.
• Assert that this question remains unanswered.
• Argue why this question is worth answering at all.

In stating the question, clarity is of utmost importance. Here it is not a good idea to beat around the bush. Use clear, concise language and exact terminology to avoid misleading the reader.

In the second part, your goal is to assert that your question remains unanswered. It is in this phase of the thesis writing that you provide critical analysis of the information you presented in the preceding section. Take the various approaches that have been put forth by other authors and in other works, and show that each of them fails to provide a wholly satisfactory answer to the question. Of course, it is not necessary to pick them apart one by one. Since you organized the preceding section by ideas, you can now take on entire classes of approaches rather than individual authors or works.

Now that you have established that your question remains unanswered, your final task in this section is to argue why it is worth answering this question at all. What good will come out of finding an answer? In what ways will the answer contribute to knowledge? The reader needs to have some understanding of the purpose of your thesis writing in order to be sympathetic to your views.

This section is central to the thesis, and the reader will definitely be looking out for it. You may actually want to include the word “question” or “problem” in the title itself in order to make it stand out to the reader.

5. Presentation of Your Work

If a thesis had a climax, this would be it. What did you do to answer the question, and what results were obtained? The structure of this section is highly flexible, and will depend much on the nature of your work. Whatever the format, the goal is the one and the same: convince your reader that you have done what you set out to do in writing the thesis. Show all relevant evidence to support your position, and avoid weakening it with the mention of dead ends or blind alleys, unless they too are relevant to demonstrating that you answered the question.

6. Conclusion

As with the introduction, the conclusion section in thesis writing is not the same as it is in the five-paragraph essay. A typical thesis conclusion comprises three subsections: the conclusions drawn from your work, a summary of the contributions your thesis has made, and a prospect of future research.

In the first subsection, avoid amorphous summarizing, and strive for a clear and concise presentation of the conclusions of your work. From the most to the least important, describe the inferences that you were able to make as the result of your research, and be sure to relate them directly to the question of your thesis itself.

Next, provide the reader with an overview of the contributions to knowledge that your thesis has made. Make sure that you present these as new and original contributions; otherwise, the reader will overlook them as filler. Naturally, this subsection may overlap with the preceding one. Again, order your contributions from most to least significant.

Finally, share your thoughts as to how your thesis can serve as the starting point for future research. This subsection is intended for future researchers who may be interested in taking your ideas further.

7. References

Every citation made in the body of your thesis must appear in the list of references. The list of references can be used as a measuring stick to evaluate the breadth of your research. A good review of the literature, after all, is essential to good thesis writing.

The reader will typically review the list of references to determine whether you have consulted the more prominent works in the field. The reader may also search for his or her own publications if they are relevant to the thesis topic, so be sure to work those in as well.

Know that unlike a bibliography, which may include titles that are not directly referred to in the text, every item in your list of references must be referred to in the body of the thesis. The preferred way of organizing your references is alphabetically by author surname, although you may also organize the list by order of citation in the thesis.

8. Appendices

Appendices are a useful tool for presenting material that may otherwise interrupt the flow of the thesis writing, such as lengthy data tables, complex charts and graphs, extensive listings of any kind, etc. In general this is information that is not absolutely essential for the reader to continue on with the thesis, but which should be available to the reader to back up relevant points in your argumentation.

Remarks on the Outline

This outline addresses the fact that the thesis reader has two main concerns. The reader wants to know first whether you chose a good question, and second whether you answered it. Sections 3 and 4 of the thesis respond to the first concern, while section 5 responds to the second. The rest of the framework shoulders this body, easing the reader into the problem and then drawing him or her back out again with a new understanding of the question. This is the art of thesis writing.
Tips for Successful Thesis Writing

Be sensitive to your audience. Theses often treat subjects of obscure nature or in intense detail, and while your readers may have a background in the field, they may not be as intimately associated as you are with the particular question your thesis addresses. Be sure to explain difficult concepts clearly and thoroughly, and to provide sufficient background information so that the reader will be able to follow your ideas.

Always strive for clarity. If your readers have to work too hard to understand your point, they may grow frustrated and unreceptive. Use precise language and clear constructions to effectively communicate your ideas. Also be sure to make the important parts stand out for the reader. A thesis is long and complex and contains an enormous amount of information. Direct the reader to focus on those aspects of the thesis that are most relevant to supporting your position.

Avoid unnecessary editorializing. Personal opinions such as “education is the most important part of society” are subjective and unsubstantiated, and open the way for a picky reader to stump you with a question like “Can you prove to us that education is the most important part of society?” Other things to avoid in thesis writing include phrases such as “It is clearly obvious that...” or “It goes without saying...” These statements have the potential to antagonize readers by implying that if they do not follow, then they must be stupid.

Perhaps most importantly of all, give yourself the time you need to produce a successful thesis. Thesis writing takes time – a long, long time – and the amount of time you put into it will show in the final product. Start early. Be sure to devote enough time to researching and developing your ideas before you actually sit down and start writing. Once you do start writing, take the time to formulate those ideas clearly and to present them in a convincing way. Also be sure to leave yourself enough time in the end to review your work and flesh out any weaknesses, and do what you can to fix them.

Finally, a few words on Master’s thesis vs. Doctoral thesis writing. Thesis writing for Master’s theses differs from thesis writing for Doctoral theses not in format but in the expectations of the reader, with a Doctoral thesis necessarily responding to a question or a problem of a higher level, be it in complexity or in scope. While a Master’s thesis can seek to expand on knowledge by advancing a known position in a new direction or applying a known technique to a new matter of inquiry, a Doctoral thesis must convey an original and significant contribution to knowledge. Always aim to meet and surpass the expectations of your readers.

By Bob Sparrow

Bedtime Reading For People Who Do Not Have Time To Sleep part 4

Focus On Results And Not The People/Circumstances In Which They Were Obtained:

``After working eight hours in the lab that night, we realized...'' has no place in the dissertation. It doesn't matter when you realized it or how long you worked to obtain the answer. Another example: ``Jim and I arrived at the numbers shown in Table 3 by measuring...'' Put an acknowledgement to Jim in the dissertation, but do not include names (even your own) in the main body. You may be tempted to document a long series of experiments that produced nothing or a coincidence that resulted in success. Avoid it completely. In particular, do not document seemingly mystical influences (e.g., ``if that cat had not crawled through the hole in the floor, we might not have discovered the power supply error indicator on the network bridge''). Never attribute such events to mystical causes or imply that strange forces may have affected your results. Summary: stick to the plain facts. Describe the results without dwelling on your reactions or events that helped you achieve them.


Avoid Self-Assessment (both praise and criticism):

Both of the following examples are incorrect: ``The method outlined in Section 2 represents a major breakthrough in the design of distributed systems because...'' ``Although the technique in the next section is not earthshaking,...''


References To Extant Work:

One always cites papers, not authors. Thus, one uses a singular verb to refer to a paper even though it has multiple authors. For example ``Johnson and Smith [J&S90] reports that...''

Avoid the phrase ``the authors claim that X''. The use of ``claim'' casts doubt on ``X'' because it references the authors' thoughts instead of the facts. If you agree ``X'' is correct, simply state ``X'' followed by a reference. If one absolutely must reference a paper instead of a result, say ``the paper states that...'' or ``Johnson and Smith [J&S 90] presents evidence that...''.


Concept Vs. Instance:

A reader can become confused when a concept and an instance of it are blurred. Common examples include: an algorithm and a particular program that implements it, a programming language and a compiler, a general abstraction and its particular implementation in a computer system, a data structure and a particular instance of it in memory.


Terminology For Concepts And Abstractions

When defining the terminology for a concept, be careful to decide precisely how the idea translates to an implementation. Consider the following discussion:

VM systems include a concept known as an address space. The system dynamically creates an address space when a program needs one, and destroys an address space when the program that created the space has finished using it. A VM system uses a small, finite number to identify each address space. Conceptually, one understands that each new address space should have a new identifier. However, if a VM system executes so long that it exhausts all possible address space identifiers, it must reuse a number.

The important point is that the discussion only makes sense because it defines ``address space'' independently from ``address space identifier''. If one expects to discuss the differences between a concept and its implementation, the definitions must allow such a distinction.


Knowledge Vs. Data

The facts that result from an experiment are called ``data''. The term ``knowledge'' implies that the facts have been analyzed, condensed, or combined with facts from other experiments to produce useful information.


Cause and Effect:

A dissertation must carefully separate cause-effect relationships from simple statistical correlations. For example, even if all computer programs written in Professor X's lab require more memory than the computer programs written in Professor Y's lab, it may not have anything to do with the professors or the lab or the programmers (e.g., maybe the people working in professor X's lab are working on applications that require more memory than the applications in professor Y's lab).


Drawing Only Warranted Conclusions:

One must be careful to only draw conclusions that the evidence supports. For example, if programs run much slower on computer A than on computer B, one cannot conclude that the processor in A is slower than the processor in B unless one has ruled out all differences in the computers' operating systems, input or output devices, memory size, memory cache, or internal bus bandwidth. In fact, one must still refrain from judgement unless one has the results from a controlled experiment (e.g., running a set of several programs many times, each when the computer is otherwise idle). Even if the cause of some phenomenon seems obvious, one cannot draw a conclusion without solid, supporting evidence.


Commerce and Science:

In a scientific dissertation, one never draws conclusions about the economic viability or commercial success of an idea/method, nor does one speculate about the history of development or origins of an idea. A scientist must remain objective about the merits of an idea independent of its commercial popularity. In particular, a scientist never assumes that commercial success is a valid measure of merit (many popular products are neither well-designed nor well-engineered). Thus, statements such as ``over four hundred vendors make products using technique Y'' are irrelevant in a dissertation.


Politics And Science:

A scientist avoids all political influence when assessing ideas. Obviously, it should not matter whether government bodies, political parties, religious groups, or other organizations endorse an idea. More important and often overlooked, it does not matter whether an idea originated with a scientist who has already won a Nobel prize or a first-year graduate student. One must assess the idea independent of the source.


Canonical Organization:

In general, every dissertation must define the problem that motivated the research, tell why that problem is important, tell what others have done, describe the new contribution, document the experiments that validate the contribution, and draw conclusions. There is no canonical organization for a dissertation; each is unique. However, novices writing a dissertation in the experimental areas of CS may find the following example a good starting point:

o
Chapter 1: Introduction
An overview of the problem; why it is important; a summary of extant work and a statement of your hypothesis or specific question to be explored. Make it readable by anyone.
o
Chapter 2: Definitions
New terms only. Make the definitions precise, concise, and unambiguous.
o
Chapter 3: Conceptual Model
Describe the central concept underlying your work. Make it a ``theme'' that ties together all your arguments. It should provide an answer to the question posed in the introduction at a conceptual level. If necessary, add another chapter to give additional reasoning about the problem or its solution.
o
Chapter 4: Experimental Measurements
Describe the results of experiments that provide evidence in support of your thesis. Usually experiments either emphasize proof-of-concept (demonstrating the viability of a method/technique) or efficiency (demonstrating that a method/technique provides better performance than those that exist).
o
Chapter 5: Corollaries And Consequences
Describe variations, extensions, or other applications of the central idea.
o
Chapter 6: Conclusions
Summarize what was learned and how it can be applied. Mention the possibilities for future research.
o
Abstract:
A short (few paragraphs) summary of the the dissertation. Describe the problem and the research approach. Emphasize the original contributions.


Suggested Order For Writing:

The easiest way to build a dissertation is inside-out. Begin by writing the chapters that describe your research (3, 4, and 5 in the above outline). Collect terms as they arise and keep a definition for each. Define each technical term, even if you use it in a conventional manner.

Organize the definitions into a separate chapter. Make the definitions precise and formal. Review later chapters to verify that each use of a technical term adheres to its definition. After reading the middle chapters to verify terminology, write the conclusions. Write the introduction next. Finally, complete an abstract.


Key To Success:

By the way, there is a key to success: practice. No one ever learned to write by reading essays like this. Instead, you need to practice, practice, practice. Every day.


Parting thoughts:

We leave you with the following ideas to mull over. If they don't mean anything to you now, revisit them after you finish wirting a dissertation.


After great pain, a formal feeling comes.
-- Emily Dickinson

A man may write at any time, if he will set himself doggedly to it.
-- Samuel Johnson

Keep right on to the end of the road.
-- Harry Lauder

The average Ph.D. thesis is nothing but the transference of bones from one graveyard to another.
-- Frank J. Dobie

Bedtime Reading For People Who Do Not Have Time To Sleep part 3

Terms And Phrases To Avoid:

* adverbs
Mostly, they are very often overly used. Use strong words instead. For example, one could say, ``Writers abuse adverbs.''
* jokes or puns
They have no place in a formal document.
* ``bad'', ``good'', ``nice'', ``terrible'', ``stupid''
A scientific dissertation does not make moral judgements. Use ``incorrect/correct'' to refer to factual correctness or errors. Use precise words or phrases to assess quality (e.g., ``method A requires less computation than method B''). In general, one should avoid all qualitative judgements.
* ``true'', ``pure'',
In the sense of ``good'' (it is judgemental).
* ``perfect''
Nothing is.
* ``an ideal solution''
You're judging again.
* ``today'', ``modern times''
Today is tomorrow's yesterday.
* ``soon''
How soon? Later tonight? Next decade?
* ``we were surprised to learn...''
Even if you were, so what?
* ``seems'', ``seemingly'',
It doesn't matter how something appears;
* ``would seem to show''
all that matters are the facts.
* ``in terms of''
usually vague
* ``based on'', ``X-based'', ``as the basis of''
careful; can be vague
* ``different''
Does not mean ``various''; different than what?
* ``in light of''
colloquial
* ``lots of''
vague & colloquial
* ``kind of''
vague & colloquial
* ``type of''
vague & colloquial
* ``something like''
vague & colloquial
* ``just about''
vague & colloquial
* ``number of''
vague; do you mean ``some'', ``many'', or ``most''? A quantative statement is preferable.
* ``due to''
colloquial
* ``probably''
only if you know the statistical probability (if you do, state it quantatively
* ``obviously, clearly''
be careful: obvious/clear to everyone?
* ``simple''
Can have a negative connotation, as in ``simpleton''
* ``along with''
Just use ``with''
* ``actually, really''
define terms precisely to eliminate the need to clarify
* ``the fact that''
makes it a meta-sentence; rephrase
* ``this'', ``that''
As in ``This causes concern.'' Reason: ``this'' can refer to the subject of the previous sentence, the entire previous sentence, the entire previous paragraph, the entire previous section, etc. More important, it can be interpreted in the concrete sense or in the meta-sense. For example, in: ``X does Y. This means ...'' the reader can assume ``this'' refers to Y or to the fact that X does it. Even when restricted (e.g., ``this computation...''), the phrase is weak and often ambiguous.
* ``You will read about...''
The second person has no place in a formal dissertation.
* ``I will describe...''
The first person has no place in a formal dissertation. If self-reference is essential, phrase it as ``Section 10 describes...''
* ``we'' as in ``we see that''
A trap to avoid. Reason: almost any sentence can be written to begin with ``we'' because ``we'' can refer to: the reader and author, the author and advisor, the author and research team, experimental computer scientists, the entire computer science community, the science community, or some other unspecified group.
* ``Hopefully, the program...''
Computer programs don't hope, not unless they implement AI systems. By the way, if you are writing an AI thesis, talk to someone else: AI people have their own system of rules.
* ``...a famous researcher...''
It doesn't matter who said it or who did it. In fact, such statements prejudice the reader.
* Be Careful When Using ``few, most, all, any, every''.
A dissertation is precise. If a sentence says ``Most computer systems contain X'', you must be able to defend it. Are you sure you really know the facts? How many computers were built and sold yesterday?
* ``must'', ``always''
Absolutely?
* ``should''
Who says so?
* ``proof'', ``prove''
Would a mathematician agree that it's a proof?
* ``show''
Used in the sense of ``prove''. To ``show'' something, you need to provide a formal proof.
* ``can/may''
Your mother probably told you the difference.
Voice:

Use active constructions. For example, say ``the operating system starts the device'' instead of ``the device is started by the operating system.''


Tense:

Write in the present tense. For example, say ``The system writes a page to the disk and then uses the frame...'' instead of ``The system will use the frame after it wrote the page to disk...''


Define Negation Early:

Example: say ``no data block waits on the output queue'' instead of ``a data block awaiting output is not on the queue.''


Grammar And Logic:

Be careful that the subject of each sentence really does what the verb says it does. Saying ``Programs must make procedure calls using the X instruction'' is not the same as saying ``Programs must use the X instruction when they call a procedure.'' In fact, the first is patently false! Another example: ``RPC requires programs to transmit large packets'' is not the same as ``RPC requires a mechanism that allows programs to transmit large packets.''

All computer scientists should know the rules of logic. Unfortunately the rules are more difficult to follow when the language of discourse is English instead of mathematical symbols. For example, the sentence ``There is a compiler that translates the N languages by...'' means a single compiler exists that handles all the languages, while the sentence ``For each of the N languages, there is a compiler that translates...'' means that there may be 1 compiler, 2 compilers, or N compilers. When written using mathematical symbols, the difference are obvious because ``for all'' and ``there exists'' are reversed.

Bedtime Reading For People Who Do Not Have Time To Sleep part 2

What One Should Learn From The Exercise:


1. All scientists need to communicate discoveries; the PhD dissertation provides training for communication with other scientists.

2. Writing a dissertation requires a student to think deeply, to organize technical discussion, to muster arguments that will convince other scientists, and to follow rules for rigorous, formal presentation of the arguments and discussion.


A Rule Of Thumb:


Good writing is essential in a dissertation. However, good writing cannot compensate for a paucity of ideas or concepts. Quite the contrary, a clear presentation always exposes weaknesses.


Definitions And Terminology:

1. Each technical term used in a dissertation must be defined either by a reference to a previously published definition (for standard terms with their usual meaning) or by a precise, unambiguous definition that appears before the term is used (for a new term or a standard term used in an unusual way).

2. Each term should be used in one and only one way throughout the dissertation.

3. The easiest way to avoid a long series of definitions is to include a statement: ``the terminology used throughout this document follows that given in [CITATION].'' Then, only define exceptions.

4. The introductory chapter can give the intuition (i.e., informal definitions) of terms provided they are defined more precisely later.

Bedtime Reading For People Who Do Not Have Time To Sleep part 1

To The Candidate:

So, you are preparing to write a Ph.D. dissertation in an experimental area of Computer Science. Unless you have written many formal documents before, you are in for a surprise: it's difficult!

There are two possible paths to success:

o Planning Ahead.

Few take this path. The few who do leave the University so quickly that they are hardly noticed. If you want to make a lasting impression and have a long career as a graduate student, do not choose it.

o Perseverance.

All you really have to do is outlast your doctoral committee. The good news is that they are much older than you, so you can guess who will eventually expire first. The bad news is that they are more practiced at this game (after all, they persevered in the face of their doctoral committee, didn't they?).

Here are a few guidelines that may help you when you finally get serious about writing. The list goes on forever; you probably won't want to read it all at once. But, please read it before you write anything.

The General Idea:

1. A thesis is a hypothesis or conjecture.

2. A PhD dissertation is a lengthy, formal document that argues in defense of a particular thesis. (So many people use the term ``thesis'' to refer to the document that a current dictionary now includes it as the third meaning of ``thesis'').

3. Two important adjectives used to describe a dissertation are ``original'' and ``substantial.'' The research performed to support a thesis must be both, and the dissertation must show it to be so. In particular, a dissertation highlights original contributions.

4. The scientific method means starting with a hypothesis and then collecting evidence to support or deny it. Before one can write a dissertation defending a particular thesis, one must collect evidence that supports it. Thus, the most difficult aspect of writing a dissertation consists of organizing the evidence and associated discussions into a coherent form.

5. The essence of a dissertation is critical thinking, not experimental data. Analysis and concepts form the heart of the work.

6. A dissertation concentrates on principles: it states the lessons learned, and not merely the facts behind them.

7. In general, every statement in a dissertation must be supported either by a reference to published scientific literature or by original work. Moreover, a dissertation does not repeat the details of critical thinking and analysis found in published sources; it uses the results as fact and refers the reader to the source for further details.

8. Each sentence in a dissertation must be complete and correct in a grammatical sense. Moreover, a dissertation must satisfy the stringent rules of formal grammar (e.g., no contractions, no colloquialisms, no slurs, no undefined technical jargon, no hidden jokes, and no slang, even when such terms or phrases are in common use in the spoken language). Indeed, the writing in a dissertaton must be crystal clear. Shades of meaning matter; the terminology and prose must make fine distinctions. The words must convey exactly the meaning intended, nothing more and nothing less.

9. Each statement in a dissertation must be correct and defensible in a logical and scientific sense. Moreover, the discussions in a dissertation must satisfy the most stringent rules of logic applied to mathematics and science.

How to Organize a Thesis

Introduction

This note describes how to organize the written thesis which is the central element of your graduate degree. To know how to organize the thesis document, you first have to understand what graduate-level research is all about, so that is covered too. In other words, this note should be helpful when you are just getting started in your graduate program, as well as later when you start to write your thesis.
What Graduate Research is All About

The distinguishing mark of graduate research is an original contribution to knowledge. The thesis is a formal document whose sole purpose is to prove that you have made an original contribution to knowledge. Failure to prove that you have made such a contribution generally leads to failure.

To this end, your thesis must show two important things:

* you have identified a worthwhile problem or question which has not been previously answered,
* you have solved the problem or answered the question.

Your contribution to knowledge generally lies in your solution or answer.
What the Graduate Thesis is All About

Because the purpose of the graduate thesis is to prove that you have made an original and useful contribution to knowledge, the examiners read your thesis to find the answers to the following questions:

* what is this student's research question?
* is it a good question? (has it been answered before? is it a useful question to work on?)
* did the student convince me that the question was adequately answered?
* has the student made an adequate contribution to knowledge?

A very clear statement of the question is essential to proving that you have made an original and worthwhile contribution to knowledge. To prove the originality and value of your contribution, you must present a thorough review of the existing literature on the subject, and on closely related subjects. Then, by making direct reference to your literature review, you must demonstrate that your question (a) has not been previously answered, and (b) is worth answering. Describing how you answered the question is usually easier to write about, since you have been intimately involved in the details over the course of your graduate work.

If your thesis does not provide adequate answers to the few questions listed above, you will likely be faced with a requirement for major revisions or you may fail your thesis defence outright. For this reason, the generic thesis skeleton given below is designed to highlight the answers to those questions with appropriate thesis organization and section titles. The generic thesis skeleton can be used for any thesis. While some professors may prefer a different organization, the essential elements in any thesis will be the same. Some further notes follow the skeleton.

Always remember that a thesis is a formal document: every item must be in the appropriate place, and repetition of material in different places should be eliminated.
A Generic Thesis Skeleton

1. Introduction

This is a general introduction to what the thesis is all about -- it is not just a description of the contents of each section. Briefly summarize the question (you will be stating the question in detail later), some of the reasons why it is a worthwhile question, and perhaps give an overview of your main results. This is a birds-eye view of the answers to the main questions answered in the thesis (see above).

2. Background Information (optional)

A brief section giving background information may be necessary, especially if your work spans two or more traditional fields. That means that your readers may not have any experience with some of the material needed to follow your thesis, so you need to give it to them. A different title than that given above is usually better; e.g., "A Brief Review of Frammis Algebra."

3. Review of the State of the Art

Here you review the state of the art relevant to your thesis. Again, a different title is probably appropriate; e.g., "State of the Art in Zylon Algorithms." The idea is to present (critical analysis comes a little bit later) the major ideas in the state of the art right up to, but not including, your own personal brilliant ideas.

You organize this section by idea, and not by author or by publication. For example if there have been three important main approaches to Zylon Algorithms to date, you might organize subsections around these three approaches, if necessary:

3.1 Iterative Approximation of Zylons
3.2 Statistical Weighting of Zylons
3.3 Graph-Theoretic Approaches to Zylon Manipulation

4. Research Question or Problem Statement

Engineering theses tend to refer to a "problem" to be solved where other disciplines talk in terms of a "question" to be answered. In either case, this section has three main parts:

1. a concise statement of the question that your thesis tackles
2. justification, by direct reference to section 3, that your question is previously unanswered
3. discussion of why it is worthwhile to answer this question.

Item 2 above is where you analyze the information which you presented in Section 3. For example, maybe your problem is to "develop a Zylon algorithm capable of handling very large scale problems in reasonable time" (you would further describe what you mean by "large scale" and "reasonable time" in the problem statement). Now in your analysis of the state of the art you would show how each class of current approaches fails (i.e. can handle only small problems, or takes too much time). In the last part of this section you would explain why having a large-scale fast Zylon algorithm is useful; e.g., by describing applications where it can be used.

Since this is one of the sections that the readers are definitely looking for, highlight it by using the word "problem" or "question" in the title: e.g. "Research Question" or "Problem Statement", or maybe something more specific such as "The Large-Scale Zylon Algorithm Problem."

5. Describing How You Solved the Problem or Answered the Question

This part of the thesis is much more free-form. It may have one or several sections and subsections. But it all has only one purpose: to convince the examiners that you answered the question or solved the problem that you set for yourself in Section 4. So show what you did that is relevant to answering the question or solving the problem: if there were blind alleys and dead ends, do not include these, unless specifically relevant to the demonstration that you answered the thesis question.

6. Conclusions

You generally cover three things in the Conclusions section, and each of these usually merits a separate subsection:

1. Conclusions
2. Summary of Contributions
3. Future Research

Conclusions are not a rambling summary of the thesis: they are short, concise statements of the inferences that you have made because of your work. It helps to organize these as short numbered paragraphs, ordered from most to least important. All conclusions should be directly related to the research question stated in Section 4. Examples:

1. The problem stated in Section 4 has been solved: as shown in Sections ? to ??, an algorithm capable of handling large-scale Zylon problems in reasonable time has been developed.

2. The principal mechanism needed in the improved Zylon algorithm is the Grooty mechanism.

3. Etc.

The Summary of Contributions will be much sought and carefully read by the examiners. Here you list the contributions of new knowledge that your thesis makes. Of course, the thesis itself must substantiate any claims made here. There is often some overlap with the Conclusions, but that's okay. Concise numbered paragraphs are again best. Organize from most to least important. Examples:

1. Developed a much quicker algorithm for large-scale Zylon problems.

2. Demonstrated the first use of the Grooty mechanism for Zylon calculations.

3. Etc.

The Future Research subsection is included so that researchers picking up this work in future have the benefit of the ideas that you generated while you were working on the project. Again, concise numbered paragraphs are usually best.

7. References

The list of references is closely tied to the review of the state of the art given in section 3. Most examiners scan your list of references looking for the important works in the field, so make sure they are listed and referred to in section 3. Truth be known, most examiners also look for their own publications if they are in the topic area of the thesis, so list these too. Besides, reading your examiner's papers usually gives you a clue as to the type of questions they are likely to ask.

All references given must be referred to in the main body of the thesis. Note the difference from a Bibliography, which may include works that are not directly referenced in the thesis. Organize the list of references either alphabetically by author surname (preferred), or by order of citation in the thesis.

8. Appendices

What goes in the appendices? Any material which impedes the smooth development of your presentation, but which is important to justify the results of a thesis. Generally it is material that is of too nitty-gritty a level of detail for inclusion in the main body of the thesis, but which should be available for perusal by the examiners to convince them sufficiently. Examples include program listings, immense tables of data, lengthy mathematical proofs or derivations, etc.
Comments on the Skeleton

Again, the thesis is a formal document designed to address the examiner's two main questions. Sections 3 and 4 show that you have chosen a good problem, and section 5 shows that you solved it. Sections 1 and 2 lead the reader into the problem, and section 6 highlights the main knowledge generated by the whole exercise.

Note also that everything that others did is carefully separated from everything that you did. Knowing who did what is important to the examiners. Section 4, the problem statement, is the obvious dividing line. That's the main reason for putting it in the middle in this formal document.
Getting Started

The best way to get started on your thesis is to prepare an extended outline. You begin by making up the Table of Contents, listing each section and subsection that you propose to include. For each section and subsection, write a brief point-form description of the contents of that section. The entire outline might be 2 to 5 pages long. Now you and your thesis supervisor should carefully review this outline: is there unnecessary material (i.e. not directly related to the problem statement)? Then remove. Is there missing material? Then add. It is much less painful and more time-efficient to make such decisions early, during the outline phase, rather than after you've already done a lot of writing which has to be thrown away.
How Long Does it Take to Write a Thesis?

Longer than you think. Even after the research itself is all done -- models built, calculations complete -- it is wise to allow at least one complete term for writing the thesis. It's not the physical act of typing that takes so long, it's the fact that writing the thesis requires the complete organization of your arguments and results. It's during this formalization of your results into a well-organized thesis document capable of withstanding the scrutiny of expert examiners that you discover weaknesses. It's fixing those weaknesses that takes time.

This is also probably the first time that your supervisor has seen the formal expression of concepts that may have been approved previously in an informal manner. Now is when you discover any misunderstandings or shortcomings in the informal agreements. It takes time to fix these. Students for whom english is not the mother tongue may have difficulty in getting ideas across, so that numerous revisions are required. And, truth be known, supervisors are sometimes not quick at reviewing and returning drafts.

Bottom line: leave yourself enough time. A rush job has painful consequences at the defence.
Tips

Always keep the reader's backgrounds in mind. Who is your audience? How much can you reasonably expect them to know about the subject before picking up your thesis? Usually they are pretty knowledgeable about the general problem, but they haven't been intimately involved with the details over the last couple of years like you have: spell difficult new concepts out clearly. It sometimes helps to mentally picture a real person that you know who has the appropriate background, and to imagine that you are explaining your ideas directly to that person.

Don't make the readers work too hard! This is fundamentally important. You know what few questions the examiners need answers for (see above). Choose section titles and wordings to clearly give them this information. The harder they have to work to ferret out your problem, your defence of the problem, your answer to the problem, your conclusions and contributions, the worse mood they will be in, and the more likely that your thesis will need major revisions.

A corollary of the above: it's impossible to be too clear! Spell things out carefully, highlight important parts by appropriate titles etc. There's a huge amount of information in a thesis: make sure you direct the readers to the answers to the important questions.

Remember that a thesis is not a story: it usually doesn't follow the chronology of things that you tried. It's a formal document designed to answer only a few major questions.

Avoid using phrases like "Clearly, this is the case..." or "Obviously, it follows that ..."; these imply that, if the readers don't understand, then they must be stupid. They might not have understood because you explained it poorly.

Avoid red flags, claims (like "software is the most important part of a computer system") that are really only your personal opinion and not substantiated by the literature or the solution you have presented. Examiners like to pick on sentences like that and ask questions like, "Can you demonstrate that software is the most important part of a computer system?"
A Note on Computer Programs and Other Prototypes

The purpose of your thesis is to clearly document an original contribution to knowledge. You may develop computer programs, prototypes, or other tools as a means of proving your points, but remember, the thesis is not about the tool, it is about the contribution to knowledge. Tools such as computer programs are fine and useful products, but you can't get an advanced degree just for the tool. You must use the tool to demonstrate that you have made an original contribution to knowledge; e.g., through its use, or ideas it embodies.
Master's vs. PhD Thesis

There are different expectations for Master's theses and for Doctoral theses. This difference is not in format but in the significance and level of discovery as evidenced by the problem to be solved and the summary of contributions; a Doctoral thesis necessarily requires a more difficult problem to be solved, and consequently more substantial contributions.

The contribution to knowledge of a Master's thesis can be in the nature of an incremental improvement in an area of knowledge, or the application of known techniques in a new area. The Ph.D. must be a substantial and innovative contribution to knowledge.

Prof. John W. Chinneck
Dept. of Systems and Computer Engineering
Carleton University
Ottawa, Canada